Stereotype Threat in U.S. Students Abroad: Negotiating American Identity in the Age of Trump
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.36366/frontiers.v29i2.395Keywords:
Study abroad, Stereotypes, Stereotype threat, National identity, Education abroadAbstract
An underinvestigated and significant source of stress for U.S. student sojourners across racial/ethnic groups is exposure to stereotypes that target their American identity. This study built on the extensive research literature on stereotype threat to investigate U.S. students’ vulnerability and reactions to being the target of stereotypes. Stereotype threat occurs when one expects to be judged negatively based on stereotypes of one’s social group and feels at risk of confirming these stereotypes. An online questionnaire administered to 95 students studying abroad just prior to and following the 2016 U.S. presidential election assessed predictors of, and common responses to, stereotype threat. Multiple regression analysis identified participant gender, CQ-Motivation, and exposure to Trump-related stereotypes as significant predictors of stereotype threat. Exploratory analyses indicated possible responses to stereotype threat, including distancing from a U.S. American identity and altering one’s appearance and behavior to look less American. Implications for sojourner support and for future research are discussed.
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References
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Chen, A. S., Wu, I., & Bian, M. (2014). The moderating effects of active and agreeable conflict management styles on cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adjustment. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 14(3), 270-288.
Dolby, N. (2004). Encountering an American self: Study abroad and national identity. Comparative Education Review, 48(2), 150-173.
Drury, B.J., Siy, J.O., & Cheryan, S. (2011). When do female role models benefit women? The importance of differentiating recruitment from retention in STEM. Psychological Inquiry, 22(4), 265–269.
Earley, P.C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural Intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Palo Alto, CA.: Stanford University Press
Eaton, W. W., Smith, C., Ybarra, M., Muntaner, C., & Tien, A. (2004). Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: review and revision (CESD and CESD-R). In M.E. Maruish (Ed.). The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment, Vol. 3: Instruments for adults (3rd ed.; pp. 363-377). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gieser, J. D. (2015). A sociocultural investigation of identity: How students navigate the study abroad experience. Journal of College Student Development, 56(6), 637-643.
Goldstein, S. B., & Keller, S. R. (2015). U. S. College students’ lay theories of culture shock. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 47, 187-194.
Goldstein, S. B., & Kim, R. I. (2006). Predictors of U. S. college students’ participation in study abroad programs: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30, 507-521.
Huff, K. C. (2013). Language, cultural intelligence and expatriate success. Management Research Review, 36(6), 596-612.
Inzlicht, M., & Ben-Zeev, T. (2000). A threatening intellectual environment: Why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males. Psychological Science, 11, 365-371.
Johns, M, Schmader, T, & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science 16(3),175–179.
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Matsumoto, D. & Hwang, H. C. (2013). Assessing cross-cultural competence: A review of available tests. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 44(6), 849-873.
Mclntyre, R. B., Paulson, R. M., Taylor, C. A., Morin, A. L., & Lord, C. G. (2011). Effects of role model deservingness on overcoming performance deficits induced by stereotype threat. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(3), 301-311.
Miller, W.C., Anton, H.A., Townson, A. F. (2008). Measurement properties of the CESD scale among individuals with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 46, 287-292.
Meyer-Lee, E., & Evans, J. (2008, May). New tools for intercultural outcomes learning assessment. In D. Deardorff (Chair), Assessment toolbox for international educators. Symposium presented at the NAFSA Annual Conference, Washington, DC.
Ng, K.Y., Van Dyne, L., & Ang, S. (2012). Cultural intelligence: A review, reflections, and recommendations for future research. In A.M. Ryan, F.T. Leong, & F.L. Oswald (Eds.), Conducting multinational research: Applying organizational psychology in the workplace (pp. 29-58). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Nguyen, H. D., & Ryan, A. M. (2008). Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1314-1334.
Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271-281.
Ployhart, R. E., Ziegert, J. C., & McFarland, L. A. (2003). Understanding racial differences on cognitive ability tests in selection contexts: An integration of stereotype threat and applicant reactions research. Human Performance, 16, 231-259.
Pronin, E., Steele, C. M., & Ross, L. (2004). Identity bifurcation in response to stereotype threat: Women and mathematics. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 142-168.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general populations. Applied Psychological Measurement,1, 385-401.
Sato, D. C. (2009). When worlds collide: Evaluating the impact of short-term study abroad programs (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED528480&site=ehost-live.
Savicki, V., & Cooley, E. (2011). American identity in study abroad students: Contrasts, changes, correlates. Journal of College Student Development, 52(3), 339-349.
Schmader, T. (2002). Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 194-201.
Schwartz, S. J., Park, I. J. K., Huynh, Q. L., Zamboanga, B. L., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Lee, R. M., ... Agocha, V. B. (2012). The American Identity Measure: Development and validation across ethnic group and immigrant generation. Identity, 12(2), 93-128.
Sekaquaptewa, D., & Thompson, M. (2003). Solo status, stereotype threat, and performance expectancies: Their effects on women's performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 68-74.
Shaffer, E.S., Marx, D.M., & Prislin, R. (2013). Mind the gap: Framing of women’s success and representation in STEM affects women’s math performance under threat. Sex Roles 68(7–8), 454–463.
Smith, C. E., & Hopkins, R. (2004). Mitigating the impact of stereotypes on academic performance: The effects of cultural identity and attributions for success among African American college students. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 28(1), 312-321.
Spencer, S. J., Logel, C., & Davies, P. G. (2016). Stereotype threat. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 415-437.
Steele, C.M., Spencer, S.J., & Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 379–440). New York: Academic Press.
Sturm, M. (2019, March 10). US politics trump abroad conversation: Students share experiences. The Lafayette. Retrieved from https://www.lafayettestudentnews.com/blog/2017/03/10/us-politics-trump-abroad-conversation-students-share-experiences.
Templer, K. J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N. A. (2006). Motivational cultural intelligence, realistic job preview, realistic living conditions preview, and cross-cultural adjustment. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 154-173.
Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., & Koh, C. (2008). Development and validation of the CQS: The cultural intelligence scale. In S. Ang, & L. Van Dyne, (Eds.) Handbook on Cultural Intelligence: Theory, Measurement and Applications (pp. 16-38). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., Ng, K.-Y., Rockstuhl, T., Tan, M.L., & Koh, C. (2012). Sub-dimensions of the four factor model of cultural intelligence: Expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence (CQ). Social and Personal Psychology: Compass, 6/4, 295-313.
Villarreal, A. (April 5, 2016). Voices: Why I’m embarrassed to be an American while studying abroad. USA Today. Retrieved from http://college.usatoday.com/2016/04/05/voices-embarrassed-american-while-studying-abroad/
von Hippel, C., Walsh, A. M., & Zouroudis, A. (2011). Identity separation in response to stereotype threat. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(3), 317-324.
Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2003). Stereotype lift. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 456 – 467.
Walton, G. M., Logel, C., Peach, J. M., Spencer, S. J., & Zanna, M. P. (2014). Two brief interventions to mitigate a “chilly climate” transform women’s experience, relationships, and achievement in engineering. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), 468–485.
Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. (2001). The psychology of culture shock (2nd ed.). East Sussex, UK: Routledge.
Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C. S.K, Ng, K. Y., Templer, K. J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N. A. (2007). Cultural intelligence: Its measurement and effects on cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation and task performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(3), 335-371.
Bathke, A., & Kim, R. (2016). Keep calm and go abroad: The effect of learning abroad on student mental health. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 27, 1-16.
Berger, M. (2016, November 4). Places where people have asked me about Donald Trump. IES Abroad Study Abroad Blogs. Retrieved from https://www.iesabroad.org/study-abroad/blogs/mdbergergwuedu/places-where-people-have-asked-me-about-donald-trump#sthash.RirDClmK.dpbs.
Block, C. J., Koch, S. M., Liberman, B. E., Merriweather, T. J., & Roberson, L. (2011). Contending with stereotype threat at work: A model of long-term responses. The Counseling Psychologist, 39(4), 570-600.
Boyce, L. (2016, March 22). Yes, I’m and American and no, I’m not a Trump supporter. Odyssey. Retrieved from https://www.theodysseyonline.com/yes-american-and-not-trump-supporter.
Chen, A. S., Wu, I., & Bian, M. (2014). The moderating effects of active and agreeable conflict management styles on cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adjustment. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 14(3), 270-288.
Dolby, N. (2004). Encountering an American self: Study abroad and national identity. Comparative Education Review, 48(2), 150-173.
Drury, B.J., Siy, J.O., & Cheryan, S. (2011). When do female role models benefit women? The importance of differentiating recruitment from retention in STEM. Psychological Inquiry, 22(4), 265–269.
Earley, P.C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural Intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Palo Alto, CA.: Stanford University Press
Eaton, W. W., Smith, C., Ybarra, M., Muntaner, C., & Tien, A. (2004). Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: review and revision (CESD and CESD-R). In M.E. Maruish (Ed.). The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment, Vol. 3: Instruments for adults (3rd ed.; pp. 363-377). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gieser, J. D. (2015). A sociocultural investigation of identity: How students navigate the study abroad experience. Journal of College Student Development, 56(6), 637-643.
Goldstein, S. B., & Keller, S. R. (2015). U. S. College students’ lay theories of culture shock. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 47, 187-194.
Goldstein, S. B., & Kim, R. I. (2006). Predictors of U. S. college students’ participation in study abroad programs: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30, 507-521.
Huff, K. C. (2013). Language, cultural intelligence and expatriate success. Management Research Review, 36(6), 596-612.
Inzlicht, M., & Ben-Zeev, T. (2000). A threatening intellectual environment: Why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males. Psychological Science, 11, 365-371.
Johns, M, Schmader, T, & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science 16(3),175–179.
Kauffman, G. (2016, December 22). US students abroad emerge as unofficial ambassadors for Trump's America. The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved from http://www.csmonitor.com/World/2016/1222/US-students-abroad-emerge-as-unofficial-ambassadors-for-Trump-s-America.
Kennedy, P. (2016, January 4). How Donald Trump is making it harder to be an American abroad. Vice. Retrieved from https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/how-donald-trump-makes-it-harder-to-be-an-american-abroad.
Matsumoto, D. & Hwang, H. C. (2013). Assessing cross-cultural competence: A review of available tests. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 44(6), 849-873.
Mclntyre, R. B., Paulson, R. M., Taylor, C. A., Morin, A. L., & Lord, C. G. (2011). Effects of role model deservingness on overcoming performance deficits induced by stereotype threat. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(3), 301-311.
Miller, W.C., Anton, H.A., Townson, A. F. (2008). Measurement properties of the CESD scale among individuals with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord, 46, 287-292.
Meyer-Lee, E., & Evans, J. (2008, May). New tools for intercultural outcomes learning assessment. In D. Deardorff (Chair), Assessment toolbox for international educators. Symposium presented at the NAFSA Annual Conference, Washington, DC.
Ng, K.Y., Van Dyne, L., & Ang, S. (2012). Cultural intelligence: A review, reflections, and recommendations for future research. In A.M. Ryan, F.T. Leong, & F.L. Oswald (Eds.), Conducting multinational research: Applying organizational psychology in the workplace (pp. 29-58). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Nguyen, H. D., & Ryan, A. M. (2008). Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1314-1334.
Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271-281.
Ployhart, R. E., Ziegert, J. C., & McFarland, L. A. (2003). Understanding racial differences on cognitive ability tests in selection contexts: An integration of stereotype threat and applicant reactions research. Human Performance, 16, 231-259.
Pronin, E., Steele, C. M., & Ross, L. (2004). Identity bifurcation in response to stereotype threat: Women and mathematics. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 142-168.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general populations. Applied Psychological Measurement,1, 385-401.
Sato, D. C. (2009). When worlds collide: Evaluating the impact of short-term study abroad programs (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED528480&site=ehost-live.
Savicki, V., & Cooley, E. (2011). American identity in study abroad students: Contrasts, changes, correlates. Journal of College Student Development, 52(3), 339-349.
Schmader, T. (2002). Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 194-201.
Schwartz, S. J., Park, I. J. K., Huynh, Q. L., Zamboanga, B. L., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Lee, R. M., ... Agocha, V. B. (2012). The American Identity Measure: Development and validation across ethnic group and immigrant generation. Identity, 12(2), 93-128.
Sekaquaptewa, D., & Thompson, M. (2003). Solo status, stereotype threat, and performance expectancies: Their effects on women's performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 68-74.
Shaffer, E.S., Marx, D.M., & Prislin, R. (2013). Mind the gap: Framing of women’s success and representation in STEM affects women’s math performance under threat. Sex Roles 68(7–8), 454–463.
Smith, C. E., & Hopkins, R. (2004). Mitigating the impact of stereotypes on academic performance: The effects of cultural identity and attributions for success among African American college students. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 28(1), 312-321.
Spencer, S. J., Logel, C., & Davies, P. G. (2016). Stereotype threat. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 415-437.
Steele, C.M., Spencer, S.J., & Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 379–440). New York: Academic Press.
Sturm, M. (2019, March 10). US politics trump abroad conversation: Students share experiences. The Lafayette. Retrieved from https://www.lafayettestudentnews.com/blog/2017/03/10/us-politics-trump-abroad-conversation-students-share-experiences.
Templer, K. J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N. A. (2006). Motivational cultural intelligence, realistic job preview, realistic living conditions preview, and cross-cultural adjustment. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 154-173.
Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., & Koh, C. (2008). Development and validation of the CQS: The cultural intelligence scale. In S. Ang, & L. Van Dyne, (Eds.) Handbook on Cultural Intelligence: Theory, Measurement and Applications (pp. 16-38). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., Ng, K.-Y., Rockstuhl, T., Tan, M.L., & Koh, C. (2012). Sub-dimensions of the four factor model of cultural intelligence: Expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence (CQ). Social and Personal Psychology: Compass, 6/4, 295-313.
Villarreal, A. (April 5, 2016). Voices: Why I’m embarrassed to be an American while studying abroad. USA Today. Retrieved from http://college.usatoday.com/2016/04/05/voices-embarrassed-american-while-studying-abroad/
von Hippel, C., Walsh, A. M., & Zouroudis, A. (2011). Identity separation in response to stereotype threat. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(3), 317-324.
Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2003). Stereotype lift. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 456 – 467.
Walton, G. M., Logel, C., Peach, J. M., Spencer, S. J., & Zanna, M. P. (2014). Two brief interventions to mitigate a “chilly climate” transform women’s experience, relationships, and achievement in engineering. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), 468–485.
Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. (2001). The psychology of culture shock (2nd ed.). East Sussex, UK: Routledge.
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Published
2017-11-16
How to Cite
Goldstein, S. B. (2017). Stereotype Threat in U.S. Students Abroad: Negotiating American Identity in the Age of Trump. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 29(2), 94–108. https://doi.org/10.36366/frontiers.v29i2.395
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